Madres adolescentes: Sensibilidad materna y funciones ejecutivas

Mayra Linné Almanza-Sepúlveda

doi:10.32870/punto.v1i14.132

Autores/as

Mayra Linné Almanza-Sepúlveda

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.32870/punto.v1i14.132

Palabras clave:

adolescencia, funciones ejecutivas, madres adolescentes, conducta maternal, sensibilidad materna

Resumen

En esta revisión se estudiará la maternidad adolescente, su asociación con la conducta maternal adulta y sus funciones ejecutivas. Este trabajo con el objetivo de reconocer los conceptos que comprenden la maternidad adolescente. Las funciones ejecutivas aún están madurando durante la adolescencia, por lo que, en comparación con las madres adultas, las madres adolescentes muestran menor sensibilidad materna. En esta revisión se presta especial atención a los procesos de cuidado y de memoria de trabajo, ya que son funciones ejecutivas determinantes de la conducta maternal que han sido poco estudiadas en madres adolescentes.

Citas

Ainsworth, M., Bell, S. & Stayton, D. (1974). Infant-mother attachment and social development: Socialization as a product of reciprocal responsiveness to signals In M Richards (Ed), The integration of a child into a social world (pp 99–135) Cambridge University Press

Almanza‐Sepúlveda, M., Chico, E., González, A., Hall, G., Steiner, M. & Fleming, A. (2018a). Executive function in teen and adult women: Association with maternal status and early adversity. Developmental Psychobiology, 60(7), 849–861 https://doiorg/https://doi org/101002/dev21766

Almanza-Sepúlveda, M., Dudin, A., Wonch, K. E., Steiner, M., Feinberg, D., Fleming, A. & Hall, G. (2018b). Exploring the morphological and emotional correlates of infant cuteness Infant Behavior and Development, 53, 90–100 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/jinfbeh201808001

Almanza-Sepúlveda, M., Fleming, A. & Jonas, W. (2020). Mothering revisited: A role for cortisol? Hormones and Behavior, 121, 104679 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/jyhbeh2020104679

Anda, R., Chapman, D., Felitti, V., Edwards, V., Williamson, D., Croft, J. & Giles, W. (2002). Adverse childhood experiences and risk of paternity in teen pregnancy Obstetrics & Gynecology, 100(1), 37–45 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/S0029-7844(02)02063-X

Andersen, S., Tomada, A., Vincow, E., Valente, E., Polcari, A. & Teicher, M. (2008). Preliminary evidence for sensitive periods in the effect of childhood sexual abuse on regional brain development. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 20(3), 292–301

Arceo-Gómez, E. & Campos-Vazquez, R. (2014). Teenage pregnancy in Mexico: evolution and consequences. Latin American Journal of

Economics, 51(1), 109–146. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.7764/ LAJE.51.1.109

Ardila, A. (2008). On the evolutionary origins of executive functions. Brain and Cognition, 68(1), 92–99 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/jbandc200803003

Atkinson, L., Leung, E., Goldberg, S., Benoit, D., Poulton, L., Myhal, N., Blokland, K. & Kerr, S. (2009). Attachment and selective attention: Disorganization and emotional Stroop reaction time Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 99–126 https://doiorg/doi:101017/ S0954579409000078

Atkinson, L., Paglia, A., Coolbear, J., Niccols, A., Parker, K. & Guger, S. (2000). Attachment security: A meta-analysis of maternal mental health correlates Clinical Psychology Review, 20(8), 1019–1040 https:// doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/S0272-7358(99)00023-9

Aubert-Broche, B., Fonov, V., García-Lorenzo, D., Mouiha, A., Guizard, N., Coupé, P., Eskildsen, S. & Collins, D. (2013). A new method for structural volume analysis of longitudinal brain MRI data and its application in studying the growth trajectories of anatomical brain structures in childhood Neuroimage, 82, 393–402 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/jneuroimage201305065

Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 1–29 https://doiorg/https:// doiorg/101146/annurev-psych-120710-100422

Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. & van Ijzendoorn, M. (2017). Protective parenting: neurobiological and behavioral dimensions Current Opinion in Psychology, 15, 45–49 https://doiorg/101016/jcopsyc201702001

Barrett, J. & Fleming, A. (2011). Annual research review: All mothers are not created equal: Neural and psychobiological perspectives on mothering and the importance of individual differences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(4), 368–397

Best, J. & Miller, P. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function Child Development, 81(6), 1641–1660 https://doiorg/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x

Blakemore, S. & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3‐4), 296–312.

Bornstein, M (2012) Cultural approaches to parenting Parenting, 12(2–3), 212–221 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101080/152951922012683359

Bourgeois, J., Goldman-Rakic, P. & Rakic, P. (1994). Synaptogenesis in the prefrontal cortex of rhesus monkeys. Cerebral Cortex, 4(1), 78– 96 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101093/cercor/4178

Brown, S., McGue, M., Maggs, J., Schulenberg, J., Hingson, R., Swartzwelder, S., Martin, C., Chung, T., Tapert, S. & Sher, K. (2008). A developmental perspective on alcohol and youths 16 to 20 years of age Pediatrics, 121(Supplement 4), S290–S310 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101542/peds2007-2243D

Brydges, C., Anderson, M., Reid, C. & Fox, A. (2013). Maturation of cognitive control: delineating response inhibition and interference suppression PloS One, 8(7), e69826 https://doiorg/https://doi org/101371/journalpone0069826

Caballero, A., Granberg, R. & Tseng, K. (2016). Mechanisms contributing to prefrontal cortex maturation during adolescence. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 4–12 https://doiorg/https:// doiorg/101016/jneubiorev201605013

Carlson, S., Moses, L. & Claxton, L. (2004). Individual differences in executive functioning and theory of mind: An investigation of inhibitory control and planning ability Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87(4), 299–319 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/j jecp200401002

Chico, E., Gonzalez, A., Ali, N., Steiner, M. & Fleming, A. (2014). Executive function and mothering: Challenges faced by teenage mothers Developmental Psychobiology, 56(5), 1027–1035 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101002/dev21185

Coleman, P. & Karraker, K. (1998). Self-efficacy and parenting quality: Findings and future applications Developmental Review, 18(1),

–85 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101006/drev19970448

Colin-Paz, Y & Villagómez-Ornelas, P (2010) Evolución de la maternidad adolescente en México, 1974-2009. En La situación demográfica de México 2010 (pp 17–53) Consejo Nacional de Población

Coll, C., Hoffman, J., Van Houten, L. & Oh, W. (1987). The social context of teenage childbearing: Effects on the infant’s care-giving environment Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16(4), 345–360 https://doi org/https://doiorg/101007/BF02138466

Corter, C. & Fleming, A. (2002). Psychobiology of maternal behavior in human beings In M Bornstein (Ed), Handbook of parenting: Biology and ecology of parenting (pp. 141–181). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers

Cousijn, J., Luijten, M. & Ewing, S. (2018). Adolescent resilience to addiction: a social plasticity hypothesis The Lancet Child & Adolescent

Health, 2(1), 69–78 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/S23524642(17)30148-7

Cuenca, L., Atienzo, E., López, L., Prado, B. & Hernández, A. (2013). Sexual and reproductive health among adolescents in Mexico: evidence and proposals Gaceta Médica de México, 149(3), 299–307

Dahl, R, & Gunnar, M (2009) Heightened stress responsiveness and emotional reactivity during pubertal maturation: implications for psychopathology Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 1–6 https:// doiorg/http//doiorg/101017/S0954579409000017

Demers, I., Bernier, A., Tarabulsy, G. & Provost, M. (2010). Mind-mindedness in adult and adolescent mothers: Relations to maternal sensitivity and infant attachment International Journal of Behavioral Development, 34(6), 529–537 https://doiorg/https://doi org/101177/0165025410365802

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101146/ annurev-psych-113011-143750

Drzewiecki, C. & Juraska, J. (2020). The structural reorganization of the prefrontal cortex during adolescence as a framework for vulnerability to the environment Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 199(173044) https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/j pbb2020173044

Dumontheil, I. (2016). Adolescent brain development. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 10, 39–44 https://doiorg/https://doi org/101016/jcobeha201604012

Easterbrooks, M., Chaudhuri, J., Bartlett, J. & Copeman, A. (2011). Resilience in parenting among young mothers: Family and ecological risks and opportunities Children and Youth Services Review, 33(1), 42–50 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/jchildyouth201008010

Eshel, N, Nelson, E, Blair, R, Pine, D & Ernst, M (2007) Neural substrates of choice selection in adults and adolescents: development of the ventrolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices Neuropsychologia, 45(6), 1270–1279 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/j neuropsychologia200610004

Fall, C, Sachdev, H, Osmond, C, Restrepo-Mendez, M, Victora, C, Martorell, R., Stein, A., Sinha, S., Tandon, N. & Adair, L. (2015). Association between maternal age at childbirth and child and adult outcomes in the offspring: a prospective study in five low-income and middle-income countries (COHORTS collaboration). The Lancet Global Health, 3(7), e366–e377 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/ S2214-109X(15)00038-8

Fasanghari, M., Kordi, M. & Asgharipour, N. (2019). Effect of maternal role training program based on Mercer theory on maternal self-confidence of primiparous women with unplanned pregnancy. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 8, 4 https://doiorg/doi: 104103/ jehpjehp_202_17

Feldman, R (2011) Maternal touch and the developing infant In M Hertenstein y S Weiss (Eds), The handbook of touch: Neuroscience, behavioral, and health perspectives (pp 373–407) Springer Publishing Co

Feng, C, Zhang, S, Liang, Z, Dong, W, Qin, S, Luo, Y & Liu, C (2020). The selfish nature in interpersonal exchange among adolescents: imposing the kind and submitting to the exploitative. BioRxiv https://doiorg/101101/20201026354704

Fisk, J. & Sharp, C. (2004). Age-related impairment in executive functioning: Updating, inhibition, shifting, and access Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26(7), 874–890 https://doiorg/ https://doiorg/101080/13803390490510680

Flanagan, P., Coppa, D., Riggs, S. & Alario, A. (1994). Communication behaviors of infants of teen mothers: an exploratory study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 15(2), 169–175 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/1054-139X(94)90545-2

Flaviano, M. & Harville, E. (2021). Adverse Childhood Experiences on Reproductive Plans and Adolescent Pregnancy in the Gulf Resilience on Women’s Health Cohort International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(1), 165 https://doiorg/https://doi org/103390/ijerph18010165

Fleming, A., Ruble, D. & Flett, G. (1988). Postpartum adjustment in first-time mothers: Relations between mood, maternal attitudes, and mother-infant interactions Developmental Psychology, 24(1), 71–81 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101037/0012-164924171

Fleming, A., Grusec, J. & Haley, D. (2012). The arc of parenting from epigenomes to ethics Parenting, 12(2–3), 89–93 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101080/152951922012680391

Fleming, A., Kraemer, G., Gonzalez, A., Lovic, V., Rees, S. & Melo, A. (2002) Mothering begets mothering: the transmission of behavior and its neurobiology across generations Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 73(1), 61–75 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/ S0091-3057(02)00793-1

Fleming, A., Ruble, D., Krieger, H. & Wong, P. (1997). Hormonal and experiential correlates of maternal responsiveness during pregnancy and the puerperium in human mothers Hormones and Behavior, 31(2), 145–158 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101006/hbeh19971376

Fleming, A., Steiner, M. & Anderson, V. (1987). Hormonal and attitudinal correlates of maternal behaviour during the early postpartum period in first-time mothers. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 5(4), 193–205 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101080/02646838708403495

Fleming, A., Steiner, M. & Corter, C. (1997). Cortisol, hedonics, and maternal responsiveness in human mothers Hormones and Behavior, 32(2), 85–98 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101006/hbeh19971407 Fuhrmann, D., Knoll, L. & Blakemore, S. (2015). Adolescence as a sensitive period of brain development Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(10), 558–566 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/jtics201507008

Garay-Gordovil, M. (2013). Autoeficacia materna percibida y actitud de soporte en la interacción madre-hijo Concepto, medición y relaciones entre sí Revista de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales, 71(139), 419–444

Giardino, J., Gonzalez, A., Steiner, M. & Fleming, A. (2008). Effects of motherhood on physiological and subjective responses to infant cries in teenage mothers: A comparison with non-mothers and adult mothers Hormones and Behavior, 53(1), 149–158 https://doiorg/https:// doiorg/101016/jyhbeh200709010

Giedd, J., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N., Castellanos, F., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., Paus, T., Evans, A. & Rapoport, J. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study Nature Neuroscience, 2(10), 861–863 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101038/13158

Gogtay, N., Giedd, J., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A., Nugent, T., Herman, D., Clasen, L., Toga, A., Rapoport, J. & Thompson, P (2004) Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(21), 8174–8179 https://doiorg/101073/pnas0402680101

Goldberg, E (2009) The new executive brain: Frontal lobes in a complex world. Oxford University Press.

Gonzalez, A., Atkinson, L., & Fleming, A. (2009). Attachment and the comparative psychobiology of mothering En Handbook of developmental social neuroscience (pp. 225–246). Guilford Press New York.

Gonzalez, A., Jenkins, J., Steiner, M. & Fleming, A. (2012). Maternal early life experiences and parenting: The mediating role of cortisol and executive function. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(7), 673–682. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/101016/jjaac201204003

Hillis, S., Anda, R., Dube, S., Felitti, V., Marchbanks, P. & Marks, J. (2004). The association between adverse childhood experiences and adolescent pregnancy, long-term psychosocial consequences, and fetal death Pediatrics, 113(2), 320–327 https://doiorg/DOI: https://doi org/101542/peds1132320

Hodgkinson, S., Beers, L., Southammakosane, C. & Lewin, A. (2014). Addressing the mental health needs of pregnant and parenting adolescents Pediatrics, 133(1), 114–122 https://doiorg/https://doi org/101542/peds2013-0927

Houdé, O (2000) Inhibition and cognitive development: Object, number, categorization, and reasoning Cognitive Development, 15(1), 63–73

Houdé, O., Zago, L., Mellet, E., Moutier, S., Pineau, A., Mazoyer, B. & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2000). Shifting from the perceptual brain to the logical brain: The neural impact of cognitive inhibition training. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(5), 721–728 https://doiorg/https:// doiorg/101162/089892900562525

Huttenlocher, P. (1979). Synaptic density in human frontal cortex-developmental changes and effects of aging. Brain Research, 163(2), 195–205 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/0006-8993(79)90349-4

Johnston, L., O’Malley, P. & Bachman, J. (2003). Monitoring the future: National results on adolescent drug use: overview of key findings. Focus, 1(2), 213–234 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101176/foc12213

Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. (2013). Choices, values, and frames. En Handbook of the fundamentals of financial decision making. Part I (pp. 269–278). World Scientific.

Kirbas, A., Gulerman, H. & Daglar, K. (2016). Pregnancy in adolescence: is it an obstetrical risk? Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 29(4), 367–371 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/j jpag201512010

Kolb, B., Mychasiuk, R., Muhammad, A., Li, Y., Frost, D.& Gibb, R. (2012). Experience and the developing prefrontal cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(Supplement 2), 17186–

https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101073/pnas1121251109 Krpan,

K., Coombs, R., Zinga, D., Steiner, M. & Fleming, A. (2005). Experiential and hormonal correlates of maternal behavior in teen and adult mothers Hormones and Behavior, 47(1), 112–122 https://doi org/https://doiorg/101016/jyhbeh200408006

Letourneau, N., Stewart, M. & Barnfather, A. (2004). Adolescent mothers: Support needs, resources, and support-education interventions Journal of Adolescent Health, 35(6), 509–525 https://doiorg/https:// doiorg/101016/jjadohealth200401007

Lomanowska, A., Boivin, M., Hertzman, C. & Fleming, A. (2017). Parenting begets parenting: A neurobiological perspective on early adversity and the transmission of parenting styles across generations Neuroscience, 342, 120–139 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/j neuroscience201509029

Lonstein, J., Lévy, F. & Fleming, A. (2015). Common and divergent psychobiological mechanisms underlying maternal behaviors in non-human and human mammals Hormones and Behavior, 73, 156– 185 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/jyhbeh201506011

Loredo-Abdalá, A., Vargas-Campuzano, E., Casas-Muñoz, A., González-Corona, J. & de Jesús Gutiérrez-Leyva, C. (2017). Embarazo adolescente: sus causas y repercusiones en la diada Revista Médica Del Instituto Mexicano Del Seguro Social, 55(2), 223–229

Luna, B (2009) Developmental changes in cognitive control through adolescence Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 37, 233–

https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/S0065-2407(09)03706-9

Luna, B. & Sweeney, J. (2004). The emergence of collaborative brain function: FMRI studies of the development of response inhibition Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021(1), 296–309

Menkes, C. & Suárez, L. (2003). Sexualidad y embarazo adolescente en México. Papeles de Población, 9(35), 233–262 https://doi org/http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1405-74252003000100011&lng=es&tlng=es.

Menon, M., Fauth, R. & Easterbrooks, M. (2020). Exploring trajectories of young mothers’ parenting stress in early childhood: Associations with protective factors and psychological vulnerabilities. Parenting, 20(3), 200–228 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101080/15295192202 01715683

Mercer, R. (1985). Relationship of the birth experience to later mothering behaviors Journal of Nurse-Midwifery, 30(4), 204–211 https://doi org/https://doiorg/101016/0091-2182(85)90144-2

Mileva-Seitz, V. & Fleming, A. (2011). How mothers are born: A psychobiological analysis of mothering. In A. Booth, S. McHale & N. Landale (Eds), Biosocial foundations of family processes (pp 3–34) Springer https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101007/978-1-4419-7361-0_1

Miyake, A., Friedman, N., Emerson, M., Witzki, A., Howerter, A. & Wager, T. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100 https://doiorg/101006/ cogp19990734

Mollborn, S & Morningstar, E (2009) Investigating the relationship between teenage childbearing and psychological distress using longitudinal evidence Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50(3), 310–326 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101177/002214650905000305

Mora, A. & Valencia, M. (2015). Embarazo en la adolescencia: cómo ocurre en la sociedad actual Perinatología y Reproducción Humana, 29(2), 76–82 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/jrprh201505004

Moss, E., Dubois-Comtois, K., Cyr, C., Tarabulsy, G., St-Laurent, D. & Bernier, A. (2011). Efficacy of a home-visiting intervention aimed at improving maternal sensitivity, child attachment, and behavioral outcomes for maltreated children: A randomized control trial. Development and Psychopathology, 23(1), 195–210

Navalta, C., Polcari, A., Webster, D., Boghossian, A. & Teicher, M. (2006). Effects of childhood sexual abuse on neuropsychological and cognitive function in college women. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 18(1), 45–53

Noll, J., Guastaferro, K., Beal, S., Schreier, H., Barnes, J., Reader, J. & Font, S. (2019). Is sexual abuse a unique predictor of sexual risk behaviors, pregnancy, and motherhood in adolescence? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 29(4), 967–983 https://doiorg/https://doi org/101111/jora12436

Noll, J., Shenk, C. & Putnam, K. (2009). Childhood sexual abuse and adolescent pregnancy: A meta-analytic update. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 34(4), 366–378 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101093/ jpepsy/jsn098

Olson, E. & Luciana, M. (2008). The development of prefrontal cortex functions in adolescence: Theoretical models and a possible dissociation of dorsal versus ventral subregions En The handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience. MIT Press.

World Health Organization (‎2007)‎. Adolescent pregnancy: unmet needs and undone deeds : a review of the literature and programmes [‎electronic resource]‎. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/ handle/10665/43702

Parks, P. & Arndt, E. (1990). Differences between adolescent and adult mothers of infants Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 11(3), 248– 253 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/0197-0070(90)90357-8

Pérez-Hernández, M., Hernández-González, M., Guevara, M., Amezcua-Gutiérrez, C & Sandoval-Carrillo, I (2021) Multiparity decreases the effect of distractor stimuli on a working memory task: an EEG study Social Neuroscience, 4, 1–12 https://doiorg/DOI: 101080/1747091920211899048

Pfefferbaum, A., Rohlfing, T., Rosenbloom, M., Chu, W., Colrain, I. & Sullivan, E (2013) Variation in longitudinal trajectories of regional brain volumes of healthy men and women (ages 10 to 85 years) measured with atlas-based parcellation of MRI. Neuroimage, 65, 176–193 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/jneuroimage201210008

Pharo, H., Sim, C., Graham, M., Gross, J. & Hayne, H. (2011). Risky business: executive function, personality, and reckless behavior during adolescence and emerging adulthood Behavioral Neuroscience, 125(6), 970 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101037/a0025768

Pope, C., Ross, L. & Stavrinos, D. (2016). Association between executive function and problematic adolescent driving Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics: JDBP, 37(9), 702 https://doiorg/doi:

/DBP0000000000000353

Romer, D. (2010). Adolescent risk taking, impulsivity, and brain development: Implications for prevention Developmental Psychobiology: The Journal of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology, 52(3), 263–276 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101002/dev20442

Romer, D., Betancourt, L., Brodsky, N., Giannetta, J., Yang, W. & Hurt, H. (2011). Does adolescent risk taking imply weak executive function? A prospective study of relations between working memory performance, impulsivity, and risk taking in early adolescence. Developmental Science, 14(5), 1119–1133 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101111/ j.1467-7687.2011.01061.x

Romer, D., Reyna, V. & Satterthwaite, T. (2017). Beyond stereotypes of adolescent risk taking: Placing the adolescent brain in developmental context. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 27, 19–34 https:// doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/jdcn201707007

Ruble, D., Brooks-Gunn, J., Fleming, A., Fitzmaurice, G., Stangor, C. & Deutsch, F. (1990). Transition to motherhood and the self: Measurement, stability, and change Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(3), 450–463 https://doiorg/https://doi org/101037/0022-3514583450

Sadler, L. & Catrone, C. (1983). The adolescent parent: A dual developmental crisis Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 42(2), 100–105 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/S0197-0070(83)80027-8

Shimamura, A. (2000). The role of the prefrontal cortex in dynamic filtering Psychobiology, 28(2), 207–218 https://doiorg/https://doi org/103758/BF03331979

Shin, H., Park, Y., Ryu, H. & Seomun, G. (2008). Maternal sensitivity: A concept analysis. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 64(3), 304–314 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2008.04814.x

Smith, C., Calkins, S. & Keane, S. (2006). The relation of maternal behavior and attachment security to toddlers’ emotions and emotion regulation Research in Human Development, 3(1), 21–31 https://doi org/https://doiorg/101207/s15427617rhd0301_3

Sowell, E., Peterson, B., Thompson, P., Welcome, S., Henkenius, A. & Toga, A. (2003). Mapping cortical change across the human life span. Nature Neuroscience, 6(3), 309–315 https://doiorg/101038/nn1008

Sowell, E., Thompson, P., Holmes, C., Jernigan, T. & Toga, A. (1999). In vivo evidence for post-adolescent brain maturation in frontal and striatal regions Nature Neuroscience, 2(10), 859–861 https://doiorg/ https://doiorg/101038/13154

Spear, L. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24(4), 417–463 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101016/s0149-7634(00)00014-2

Stallings, J., Fleming, A. & Corter, C. (2001). The effects of infant cries and odors on sympathy, cortisol, and autonomic responses in new mothers and nonpostpartum women. Parenting, 1(1/2), 71–100 https:// doiorg/https://doiorg/101080/1529519220019681212

Steinberg, L. (2004). Risk taking in adolescence: what changes, and why? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021(1), 51–58 https:// doiorg/https://doiorg/101196/annals1308005

Steinberg, L., Albert, D., Cauffman, E., Banich, M., Graham, S. & Woolard, J. (2008). Age differences in sensation seeking and impulsivity as indexed by behavior and self-report: evidence for a dual systems model Developmental Psychology, 44(6), 1764 https://doiorg/https:// doiorg/101037/a0012955

Swingler, M., Perry, N., Calkins, S. & Bell, M. (2017). Maternal behavior predicts infant neurophysiological and behavioral attention processes in the first year. Developmental Psychology, 53(1), 13 https://doiorg/ https://doiorg/101037/dev0000187

Tamnes, C., Herting, M., Goddings, A., Meuwese, R., Blakemore, S., Dahl, R., Güroğlu, B., Raznahan, A., Sowell, E. & Crone, E. (2017). Development of the cerebral cortex across adolescence: a multisample study of inter-related longitudinal changes in cortical volume, surface area, and thickness. Journal of Neuroscience, 37(12), 3402–3412 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3302-16.2017

Tamnes, C., Walhovd, K., Dale, A., Østby, Y., Grydeland, H., Richardson, G., Westlye, L., Roddey, J., Hagler Jr, D. & Due-Tønnessen, P. (2013) Brain development and aging: overlapping and unique patterns of change Neuroimage, 68, 63–74 https://doiorg/https://doi org/101016/jneuroimage201211039

Toga, A., Thompson, P. & Sowell, E. (2006). Mapping brain maturation Focus, 29(3), 148–390 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/101176/ foc43378

Walshe, E., Ward McIntosh, C., Romer, D. & Winston, F. (2017). Executive function capacities, negative driving behavior and crashes in young drivers International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(11), 1314 https://doiorg/https://doiorg/103390/ ijerph14111314

Wertheim, E. & Paxton, S. (2011). Body image development in adolescent girls En Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (pp. 76–84). The Guilford Press.

Wood, J. & Grafman, J. (2003). Human prefrontal cortex: processing and representational perspectives Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4(2),

–147 https://doiorg/101038/nrn1033

World Bank (2018). Adolescent Fertility Rate (Births per 1, 000 Women Ages 15–19). World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ SP.ADO.TFRT?location